Differentiation made among poor readers into dyslexics

Differentiation made among poor readers into dyslexics Is dyslexia a big, expensive myth (Mills 2007)? Despite the popular acceptance of dyslexia as a type of learning disability, particularly as a persistent and significant form of reading difficulty, the debate surrounding its existence, definition, and diagnosis persists (Doyle 2003). For many years now, school systems around the world have developed and implemented strategies in order to address dyslexia because it affects a considerable percentage in the population. In the United Kingdom, one out of 10 people are considered dyslexic, 375,000 children (Hayes 2005) and in other studies, 5% of the childrens population (Ramus 2003). Dyslexia is widely thought to be a deficit that can be overcome with proper learning interventions; some very prominent personalities have been said to succeed over dyslexia: Hans Christian Andersen and Nelson Rockefeller, for instance. Scientific and academic discourse on dyslexia, which is derived from the Greek words dys meaning difficult and lexia meaning reading, is plagued by a definitional crisis (Snowling 2000; Ingram, Pianu and Welsh 2007). Until now, there is still no consensus on the definition of dyslexia. Moreover, issues on categorisation also face the dyslexia community (Lyon, Shaywitz, and Shaywitz 2003). This is perhaps because poor reading is influenced by a myriad of factors: socio-economic disadvantage, poor diet, poor living conditions, and others. This paper centralises on the controversy on whether or not a) it is possible to differentiate dyslexics from garden-variety poor readers and b) it is useful to make such a differentiation. The issue of differentiation has significant implications and until now, psychologists and academic writers are still debating over it. Treating dyslexia as a distinct entity seems logically sound. In every class, there are students who do very poorly in reading bu t exhibit higher ability in other competencies. There are also those who do poorly in reading and in generally all other competencies. In terms of diagnosis, some claim that differentiating dyslexics from poor readers will enable educators to development the most suitable interventions. Nonetheless, the definitional crisis over dyslexia makes it a dilemma to make that diagnosis. Labelling someone as dyslexic actually makes the assumption that existing literature and empirical data have generated more precise insight into what dyslexia is. The fact of the matter is experts have only agreed to disagree on the criteria by which dyslexia is diagnosed, including the types of intervention necessary to help children overcome their reading difficulties (Rice and Brooks 2004). The peril of differentiating dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers without any clear and conclusive parameters for diagnosis is that in the end, students with temporary reading difficulties may be branded dyslexics needlessly and students who are in genuine danger may not be getting the appropriate learning interventions they need. Due to the unstable and inconsistent definitions of dyslexia, some academic writers have questioned whether the disorder really exists. Some people view dyslexia as a social and emotional construct (Elliott 2005, p. 485) and politicians claim the impairment as a fictional malady (Hayes 2005, p. 1) to suggest that dyslexia is an artificial disorder concocted by the school system to promote their interests or to hide weaknesses in language instruction. Some have even claimed that dyslexia has a class bias: that it is the middle-class way of covering up intellectual weakness. Despite these allegations, the dyslexia movement worldwide has gained wide acceptance and scientific endeavours, which although inconclusive have provided greater insight into how this impairment can be overcome by children and adults. This paper explored recent literature on dyslexia, its definitions, causes, and critically discussed the issue of differentiation between dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers, how such a difference could be diagnosed, and its implications. The paper concludes that while there are proposed methods of evaluation, there remains no conclusive means of differentiating dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers. 1 Dyslexia: definitions and causes 1.1 The reading process In order to critically examine dyslexia, models of the reading process need to be reviewed. There have been two predominant theoretical models to answer the questions: how do children read? and how do they learn how to read? (Harrison 2000, p. 35). Kenneth Goodman (1970, as cited in Harrison 2000) explained that reading was a selective process which requires children to use minimal language cues but maximum contextual information. In what he calls the psycholinguistic guessing game, Goodman argued that the objective of reading is not word or letter recognition but to make sense of it the construction of meaning. Recent studies have shown the fluent reading requires a fairly complete and rapid visual processing of text while hypothesising or guessing as Goodman (1970) suggested has a small role to play in word recognition. The most widely accepted model of reading among experts and psychologists is the interactive model which states that the reading process is largely supportive of the bottom-up model as well as the input of top-down processes when required (Harrison 2000). This means that in order for individuals to read fluently, what occurs is automatic, rapid, and context-free word recognition having a fixation duration dependent on the relative word frequency of separate words. Stanovich (1980) attempted to incorporate what is known about skilled and unskilled reading into the interactive-compensatory model. A key concept of this model of reading is that a process at any level can compensate for deficiencies at any other level (p. 36). Stanovichs model was a response to both bottom-up models and top-down models which had their own problems. One of the problems for the top-down model is that for many texts, the reader has littlele knowledge of the topic and cannot generate predictions. While the top-down models may explain beginning reading, with slow rates of word recognition, they do not accurately describe skilled reading behavior. Stanovich (1980) argued that good readers recognised words rapidly because their recognition was automatic. It was poor readers, by contrast, who needed to make the greatest use of context in order to facilitate word recognition, and they did so at the expense of needing to devote extra time to this part of the processes. The o bvious implication of this model is that accurate, rapid word recognition is really important in fluent reading. 1.2 Defining Dyslexia Dyslexia is difficult to define. Although there have been several definitions introduced since its inception, experts have relied on identifying exclusionary and inclusionary characteristics to define who has dyslexia (Rice and Brooks 2004). Fletcher and Lyon (2008) offered three primary reasons why dyslexia is hard to define. First, dyslexia is unobservable construct meaning that attempts to measure it are imperfect and people suffering from the disorder cannot objectively report it. Second, dyslexia is dimensional, meaning that there are varying degrees to which individuals may experience difficulty, from minor, severe, and even in-between. Third, what characteristics to include and what to exclude have been a site for great disagreement among practitioners and psychologists. Nevertheless, common points in several definitions can be seen are elaborated in this paper. A specific learning disability Defining dyslexia as one disorder among a whole umbrella of learning disabilities (LD) has been criticised (Shaywitz, Morris and Shaywitz 2003; Snowling 2000). Studies have shown that among all learning disabilities, reading disability is the most prevalent, affecting 80% of people diagnosed with learning disabilities. In the past, LD encompassed a broad selection of difficulties experienced by children and adults in several competencies: reading, listening, writing, mathematics, and speaking. Dyslexia is now defined as a specific learning disability (Shaywitz, Morris, and Shaywitz 2003, p. 2). Some definitions on dyslexia describe the different areas impaired. The British Association of Dyslexia (2010) defines dyslexia as a specific learning difficulty which mainly affects the development of literacy and language related skills wherein difficulties may experienced in rapid naming, working memory, phonological processing, processing speed, and other skills. The definition also elaborates that dyslexia may occur among people who are of normal or average intelligence. Shaywitz, Morris, and Shaywitz (2003) explained that among the indicators of dyslexia may be poor spelling, inaccurate word recognition, and poor decoding abilities. The National Centre for Learning Disabilities treats dyslexia as a language processing disorder which may impair reading, writing, spelling, and speaking. Dyslexia Scotland (2010) defined dyslexia as a specific leaning difficulty affecting almost 10% of the population. Dyslexics are said to experience difficulty in reading, spelling, writing, and mathematics. It explained that dyslexia occurs as a consequence of poor short-term memory; hence, dyslexics do poorly in learning abilities because they are unable to maintain the sequencing of numbers, words, or simple instructions. The Miles Dyslexia Centre (2010) defined dyslexia as a combination of abilities and difficulties which affect the learning process in one or more of reading, spelling, writing and sometimes numeracy/language (n.p.). Dyslexics have weaknesses in the following areas: memory, processing speed, short-term memory, visual perception, auditory perception, spoken language, and motor skills. Nevertheless, their definition of dyslexia also reiterates that in place of such weaknesses, dyslexics are gifted with creative or oral skills and that the impairment occurs regardless of socioeconomic or linguistic background. In addition, the National Strategy for Improving Adult Literacy and Numeracy Skills point out that dyslexia is the result of poor phonological processing and poor short-term memory. Hence, dyslexics often struggle with following instructions, copying notes from the board, and difficulty in reading (Department for Education and Skills 2004). The Dyslexia Institute (2002) also outlined some of the shortcomings of dyslexic individuals, such as: 1) difficulty in processing real-time information due to poor short-term memory or working memory, 2) problems in the phonological process which make them struggle in associating letters to sounds, and 3) problems in visual processing. A neurobiological dysfunction Many definitions focus on the neurobiological origins of dyslexia (Shaywitz, Morris, and Shaywitz 2003; Nicolson and Fawcett 2005). Dyslexia is seen not as a consequence of impaired vision or poor intelligence, but as a neurological disorder which has caused brains of individuals to interpret and process information in a different manner (National Centre for Learning Disabilities 2007). The National Institute of Health (2008) also viewed dyslexia as a problem with the brains ability to recognise and process symbols which may affect childrens capacity to separate sounds in spoken words or in rhyming skills which are fundamental in the reading process. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS 2010) indicates that dyslexics experience difficulties with writing, phonological processing and rapid visual-verbal responding. It defined dyslexia as a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a persons ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected of them despite having normal intelligence (NINDS 2010, n.p.). While the effects of dyslexia vary, the most common characteristics among dyslexics are said to include phonological processing, spelling, and rapid verbal-visual response. Dyslexia is also heritable and recent studies have pointed to genes which make individuals predisposed to the learning disorder. A phonological deficit Secondary to the biological basis of dyslexia is that it is the consequence of a phonological deficit. The phonological deficit hypothesis originated from Pringle Morgan, considered to be the father of dyslexia (Snowling 2001). According to this hypothesis, reading entails the segmentation of texts into the smallest units of language called graphemes. Graphemes are then converted to phonemes which then become then complete sound of a word. For this to take place, the reader needs to assemble and address the phonology of a word. Dyslexics have difficulty in phonemic representations and phonemic recall due to poor short-term memory and other weaknesses in brain mapping. The International Dyslexia Association (IDA 2008) describes dyslexia a language-based type of learning disorder. Dyslexics experience difficulty in developing fluent single-word decoding skills. Furthermore, Fletcher et al. (2002, as cited in Rice and Brooks 2004) supported the notion that dyslexia indicates a problem with phonological processing. Accordingly, children who suffer from dyslexia are identified when they appear a deficit in the skills of words recognition which is associated with rapid naming and phonological memory. In addition, Snowling (2001) considered the importance of phonological processing as one of the etiology of dyslexia. Therefore, this definition focuses on the issues with word-decoding more than reading comprehension, which are controversial and critical point to distinguish between children who have specific difficulties in reading and those who have more problems and weaknesses in language. Finally, this definition is clear by clarifying that dyslexia includes some difficulties in spelling and other writing skills. Snowling (2001) attributes dyslexia to weaknesses in language that affect the development of reading and spelling with dyslexic people. The phenomenon of weakness in language do not affect the reading directly, but also affect the development of the spoken language, which is the basic foundation for learning to read. Snowling (2009) then defined dyslexia as: A specific form of language impairment that affects the way in which the brain encodes the phonological features of spoken words. The core deficit is in phonological processing and stems from poorly specified phonological representations. Dyslexia specifically affects the development of reading and spelling skills but its effects can be modified through development leading to a variety of behavioural manifestations (pp. 213-214). This definition stresses the importance of focusing on the ability to read text not only accurately, but also rapidly and with the importance of proper expression. The acute shortage in the development of fluent reading is characteristic of dyslexia, which continues into adulthood, even if accuracy evolved. Therefore, the importance of reading fluently must be encouraged dyslexic children who read accurately but not fluently will pass unnoticed. Fletcher et.al. (2002, as cited in Rice and Brooks 2004) agreed that most students with dyslexia frequently encounter problems in reading comprehension because of the difficulties in the accuracy and fluency of word recognition. They may also suffer from these problems even if the skills of the accuracy and fluency were improved because of weaknesses in vocabulary as well as in language abilities. One of the most popular and widely-used definition dates back to 1928 and developed by The World Federation of Neurology: A disorder manifested by difficulty learning to read, despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence and sociocultural opportunity. It is dependent upon fundamental cognitive disabilities which are frequently constitutional in origin (as cited in Gustafson and Samuelsson 1999, p. 127). This definition is the basis of what is known as the discrepancy-based view of dyslexia (Fletcher et al. 2007). This definition assumes dyslexia as an unexpected difficulty in reading. By unexpected, dyslexia is taken to occur as a reading disorder in a child or an adult who despite having all the various factors crucial to developing fluent reading (motivation, intelligence, good instruction) still struggles with reading (Shaywitz 1998). More challenging has been the question of how to operationalise the unexpected nature of dyslexia. This has been achieved by allowing a certain amount of discrepancy between a childs level of intelligence (evaluated through an IQ test) and reading ability. Some schools use the absolute discrepancy involving 1 to 1.5 standard deviations across scores while others use the regression-based model of ascertaining the correlation between reading achievement and IQ. The discrepancy-based definition of dyslexia provides the basis for the categorisation of dyslexics with garden-variety poor readers. Genuine dyslexics are those who despite having average intelligence struggle with reading while poor readers are those who struggle with reading because of intellectual weakness and other demographic and sociocultural factors. The phonological deficit is considered as the cognitive basis to dyslexia (Snowling 2001; Vellutino et al. 2004). Nonetheless, this deficit is also viewed as secondary only to other deficits such auditory temporal processing deficits (Tallal 1980) or low-level visual deficit induced by inhibitions in the magnocellular system (Livingstone, Rosen, Drislane, and Galaburda 1991). 1.3 Visual Processing in Dyslexia The most dominant etiological explanation for dyslexia had been that it was phonological deficit and not the result of problems in visual functioning or processing. However, in the 1980s, several researchers undertook systematic studies and found that many dyslexic readers experienced visual deficits. For instance, Getman (1985, as cited in Ramus 2003) attributed problems in visual tracking to oculomotor deficiencies as well as a supposed deficit in the transient visual system. This theory has been discredited by several controlled experiments but the hypothesised effect of the transient visual system gained empirical interest. While proponents of theories attributing dyslexia to visual deficits do not exclude other explanations, the relationship between dyslexia and problems in visual processing has spurred academic interest in the subject. The main theory behind such systematic reports indicates that dyslexia is caused by a deficit in the transient system or the magnocellular system in the visual pathway. The magnocellular-deficit theory explains that two parallel systems lead the visual pathway from the eyes to the visual cortex: the magno- (large) and parvo- (small) cellular systems. The larger system consisting of large cells possesses high conduction velocity as well as sensitivity to rapid movement and stimulus changes. The smaller system is sensitive to fine spatial details and color. Dyslexia occurs among people which have magnocellular systems that have reduced sensitivity (Lovegrove, Garzia, and Nicholson 1990). The magnocellular system indirectly influences the parvocellular system by pressuring the latter in the course of the reading process. As one reads, there occurs a series of fixations followed by saccades or short rapid eye movements. The magnocellular deficit theory proposes that the larger system is stimulated by the saccades and the parvocellular system by the fixations. Dyslexia occurs when there is inhibition in the magnocellular system, consequently suppressing activity in the parvocellular system. While a number of psychologists and writers have accepted the magnocellular deficit theory, there have also been counterproductive results. For instance, in a review of contrast sensitivity studies which support the magnocellular deficit theory, Skottun (2000) found the studies which are consistent with the theory are outnumbered by studies that disprove it. An explanation behind the conflicting results is the lack of definite parameters to diagnose dyslexia. One author has alleged that the confirmability of the magnocellular deficit theory is confined to only one subtype of dyslexics (Borsting et al. 1996, as cited in Skottun 2000). 1.4 Auditory Processing in Dyslexia Another alternative explanation to dyslexia does not discount the deficit as phonological in nature but sees it more as one that stems from an auditory deficit in temporal processing. This theory is based on Tallal (1980) who proposed that children who are poor readers have difficulty processing brief or rapidly changing acoustic events whether used in speech or not. Hence, children find it difficult to judge the temporal order of nonspeech tones presented but stop-consonant-vowel syllables as well. This deficit interferes with their overall speech perception which is crucial to normal development of language, in turn, a fundamental requirement in reading. Tallal and colleagues arrived at this hypothesis after studying children with language impairments. When presented with high and low tones at long (400ms) and short (50 ms) interstimulus intervals (ISIs), the children were found unable to make temporal order judgments (TOJ). Tallal (1980) found that compared to normal readers, dyslexics performed poorly when presented long ISIs. From this observation, Tallal made an inference that dyslexics have a non-linguistic deficit in temporal resolution of rapidly changing auditory stimuli which impairs speech perception. Tallal also inferred that this deficit underlies the phonological problem. Studies which replicated Tallals work had mixed findings. Reed (1989, as cited in Ramus 2003) found that when using stop consonants and tones, dyslexics performed poorly compared to normals in making TOJs but performed equally with normals when presented with steady state vowels. Other studies lent support and contradiction to Tallals hypothesis. For instance, Mody, Studdert-Kennedy, and Brady (1997) concluded that dyslexics suffered from speech discrimination deficits rather than TOJs. In sum, evidence suggesting a direct link of temporal processing deficit to dyslexia has not been established. The auditory disorders that are observed in individuals with dyslexia are not particularly rapid or temporal in nature. These disorders are restricted to a subset of the dyslexic population, and have little influence on the development of phonology and reading. It therefore seems that the phonological deficit that is characteristic of dyslexia can arise in the absence of any auditory disorder, with the most severe auditory impairments nevertheless acting as aggravating factors (Ramus 2003). 2. Does dyslexia exist? There is also some debate on whether it is meaningful to speak of dyslexia as a distinct disorder in relation to other individuals classified as poor readers. If it can be proven that there is no significant difference among individuals diagnosed with dyslexia and your average or garden-variety poor reader, then it would make sense to question whether to study dyslexia at all. 2.1 Difference between dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers Gough and Tumner (1986, as cited in Siegel 1992) introduced the concept of the garden-variety poor readers in order to separate dyslexics from poor readers found to be poor in language, listening, verbal knowledge, decoding skills or pronunciation language. The authors differentiated dyslexics from the poor readers by diagnosing them as low in decoding skills but not long in listening. Behind this differentiation is the definition of reading disability based on an aptitude-achievement discrepancy (Stanovich 1991). There were children who were observed to be poor readers but perform well in other skills. On the other hand, there were poor readers who perform poorly in intellectual skills. This discrepancy criterion made the key assumption that: poor readers with a high aptitude (based on IQ test scores) were neurologically and cognitively different from poor readers with a low IQ. Hence, clinically, the term dyslexic came to mean only children with significant discrepancy in reading ability and intelligence. The discrepancy criterion is the basis of legal statutes governing special education practice in the U.S. and elsewhere. Academically, research definitions of dyslexia use this criterion widely. Dyslexia is officially diagnosed using the discrepancy criterion in the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders (World Health Organisation 1993), and to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV [DSM-IV]. Before a child or adult is diagnosed as dyslexic, his or her reading achievement must be considerably lower than what is expected of him or her by age and IQ score. Valtin (2010) concludes that using this criterion, dyslexia is then defined as a medical, eetiological concept of specific reading impairment in children of normal intelligence, due to genetic or neuropsychological deficits'(p. 3) while normal reading disability occurs in children tested as having subnormal intelligence. The operationalisation of the discrepancy concept has been critiqued as a reification of something that has not been substantiated empirically (Stanovich 1994). The basic assumption is that a child or adults intellectual capacity is the norm for determining reading underachievement. Hence, the degree of discrepancy of reading ability from IQ was judged as meaningful, in the almost total absence of empirical evidence (Stanovich 1994, p. 581). Children with reading disabilities were categorised as RD-D or reading-disabled with IQ discrepancy (dyslexics) and RD-N (reading-disabled without IQ discrepancy (poor readers). Supporters of the discrepancy criterion argue that differentiation among poor readers assists in determining which learning interventions suit groups of reading-disabled children. Because dyslexics suffer from reading disorders without showing measurable signs of intellectual weakness, their needs are different from those who read poorly because of low IQ, socioeconomic disadvantage, health problems, and others. There are many however who question its usefulness in diagnosis because dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers experience the same weaknesses in spelling and reading (Valtin 2010). Moreover, the task of differentiating children with reading disorders into dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers is a largely arbitrary one (Rice and Brooks 2004) because it may be diagnosed under one method but not in another. Because there is no clear-cut definition of dyslexia, it has been considered a construct to refer to descriptive characteristics and not due to any cognitive dysfunct ions (Rice and Brooks 2004). 2.2 Diagnosing differences between dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers It is also relevant to review existing literature and empirical data to conclude that it is scientifically possible to distinguish which children are dyslexics and which are garden-variety poor readers. While some findings have pointed to noticeable differences between dyslexics and poor readers, they are mixed and cannot be considered unequivocal evidence to suggest differences in both groups. Rice and Brooks (2004) listed several studies that suggested moderate differences in the performance of dyslexic and poor readers on a few reading-related tests but these differences are overrun with similarities in performance of the same groups in tests measuring reading-related characteristics such as reversal errors in alphabet, digital sequencing errors, spelling of sight vocabulary, phonemic segmentation, and pseudoword reading. Moreover, studies (Fawcett et al 2001, Jorm et al 1986, as cited in Rice and Brooks 2004) have also found that garden-variety readers had lower scores than dyslexics in the areas of rhyme task, memory span, segmentation, and pseudoword repetition. Badian (1994) conducted an experimental study to secure support for the treatment of dyslexia as a separate entity by proving that dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers differ significantly in cognitive skills which are reading-related. Using 110 children subjects grouped into three dyslexic, garden-variety poor readers, and good readers, Badian (1994) found that it is empirically sound to differentiate dyslexics from garden-variety poor readers. While nonword reading and phonological awareness among dyslexic and garden-variety poor readers were both low in comparison to good readers, the study found that dyslexics had unique weaknesses in phonological coding of graphic stimuli and automatic visual recognition, consistent to Stanovichs phonological-core variable-difference model of dyslexia. Aaron (1989) also found differences between dyslexics and non-dyslexic poor readers in an experimental study on reading comprehension but not on word reading. Using two groups of primary-level poor readers, one group diagnosed as dyslexics (normal IQ scores) and the other as NSRD (nonspecific reading-disabled) or those having below normal IQ scores. The dyslexics were inferior than other two groups in terms of spelling and decoding, were more context-dependent when it came to word recognition, and did the worst on inferential comprehension. Ellis, McDougall, and Monk (1996) had somewhat contradicting results with Aaron (1989). Using four groups dyslexics (mean IQ 118), normal readers (mean IQ 107), and garden-variety poor readers (mean IQ 80), and precocious readers (mean IQ 126) the study measured reading accuracy as a measure of reading ability. They concluded that dyslexics and garden-variety poor readers had insignificant differences in decoding skills, consistent with Siegels (1992) claim and Stanovichs (1994) assertion. Moreover, unlike Aarons (1989) earlier finding, the poor readers obtained lower scores on comprehension of text and listening comprehension compared to dyslexics. The lack of scientific rigour in some of the psychometric tests and research on differentiation has also been criticised. Two control groups are required to undergo such experiments. Controlling for confounding variables in the tests is also difficult. Researchers need to take note of demographic and psychometric measures to establish validity of the findings (Chiappe et al. 2001, as cited in Rice and Brooks 2004). While Aaron (1989) and Badian (1994) gathering encouraging results that support differentiation, they also accepted several methodological issues with their experiments. First, the definitions were not uniformly used. There were considerable age differences in the sample of normal readers and garden-variety poor readers as well as the type of experimental design used. 2.3 Relationship of intelligence and dyslexia The discrepancy-based criterion in diagnosing dyslexics is largely because of a few prominent and highly gifted dyslexics known in history. Hence, dyslexia has come to be known as a disorder afflicting individuals who are otherwise intelligent but have difficulty reading. However, as Siegel (1992) explains, there is absolutely no scientific data suggesting that only intelligent people have dyslexia or that people considered of low intelligence cannot suffer from dyslexia. The reason why level of intelligence is used to isolate individuals having reading programs is that the IQ score is the best measure of someones intellectual capacity. Hence, people with a high IQ can be said to have greater intellectual capacity than those who have lower IQ. In the context of the reading-disabled, a dyslexic is someone who cannot perform up to their maximum potential because of neurobiological or genetic factors. Intelligence scores also

Great Gatsby: Fitzgeralds Criticism Of The American Dream Essay

Great Gatsby: Fitzgerald's Criticism of The American Dream The American Dream, as it arose in the Colonial period and developed in the nineteenth century, was based on the assumption that each person, no matter what his origins, could succeed in life on the sole basis of his or her own skill and effort. The dream was embodied in the ideal of the self-made man, just as it was embodied in Fitzgerald's own family by his grandfather, P. F. McQuillan. Fitzgerald's novel takes its place among other novels whose insights into the nature of the American dream have not affected the artistic form of the novel itself. The Great Gatsby serves as Fitzgerald's critique of the American dream.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Great Gatsby embodies a criticism of America and the American experience, more radical than any other author has attempted. The theme of the novel is the destruction of the American dream during the 1920s, a period when the vulgar pursuit of material happiness has corrupted the old values that gave substance to the dream. The characters are Midwesterners who have come East in pursuit of this new dream of money, fame, success, glamour, and excitement. Tom and Daisy must have a huge house, a stable of polo ponies, and friends in Europe. Gatsby must have his enormous mansion before he can feel confident enough to try to win Daisy. Fitzgerald does not criticize the American dream itself but the corruption of that dream. What was once for Ben Franklin or Thomas Jefferson ...

Explain the Boundaries Between the Teaching Role Essay

Professionalism requires us to maintain appropriate standards and fulfil our responsibilities to learners, institutions and colleagues (Francis and Gould, 2009:10). This is achieved by setting professional and personal boundaries which will enable us to be clear about what our limits are and what our professional role involves. Professional boundaries Professional boundaries could include: lack of resources e.g. broken or faulty equipment students expectations knowing what sort of advice can or can not be given lack of support from colleagues and lack of access to resources Deadlines and time restraints demands from managers unmotivated or reluctant students These boundaries could have a negative effect on us as teachers as well as other professionals within the organisation. We therefore need to deal with these boundaries by referring to the Institute for Learning’s (IfL) Code of Practice (2008) which outlines the behaviours expected of teachers in the Lifelong Sector (see Section 1.1d). Personal boundaries It is important not to given preferential treatment to one or a group of learners and to treat everyone equally. Teachers should not give out personal information or get personally involved with a student e.g. not join social networking sites etc. You should avoid touching students inappropriately or give preferential treatment to some students and not others. It is our responsibility to identify areas outside of the professional boundaries of a teacher, either because of lack of necessary skills or expertise or because it is inappropriate for the teacher to deal with it. This is when external support from other professionals will be required and it is important to identify the appropriate colleague to which to refer the matter. For example a student who is having financial problems should be referred to the appropriate colleague within the institution.

Cyber Safety For Adolescent Girls Bullying, Harassment,...

Smith, P.K., Thompson, F., Davidson, J. (2014). Cyber safety for adolescent girls: bullying, harassment, sexting, pornography, and solicitation. Current opinion in obstetrics and gynecology, 26(5), 360-365. This article Cybersafety is based on adolescent female victims in regards to cyberbullying, the issues and risks associated with being a victim of online abuse whether this may be through the internet or mobile devices. And, the interventions which have been implemented to minimize the dangers of the different electronic forms. Initially this critical review will address the strengths and weaknesses within this article to examine the methods of the interventions applied in this article to help minimize the health factors and†¦show more content†¦This article has reviewed the key aspects of cyber-safety and how technology is harming young adolescents predominately focusing on females, as they are more vulnerable. This initial article has implemented and discussed the interventions to help victims of cyberbullying, whilst using the internet to reduce the risk of the key factors that contribute to depression, physical health and suicide associated with cyberbullying. The research methodology used within this article demonstrates the different study s and research conducted regarding cyber bullying these include statistics, surveys, cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies and comparative research of the different countries these include the UK, USA, China, Sweden and France. In addition, the firs t chosen article Bullying, cyberbullying, and Suicide by Hinduja and Patchin (2010), focuses on a link between traditional school

Exploration Of Oil And Gas Resources Essay - 1715 Words

Introduction With the continued depletion of conventional oil and gas resources, the oil industry is now more than ever faced with exploration of unconventional and challenging oil and gas reserves. Such reserves call for novel drilling techniques and also require drilling fluids that can fulfil such drilling requirements. In most cases it’s OBM that can provide hole stability and it is also the best choice for drilling highly sensitive wells. But as these OBMs are being used, operators must strike a balance between their desired high performance standards and environmental concerns of their regulators and local communities. These stringent environmental concerns have led to research and development of many water based drilling muds but these muds still don’t offer the desired drilling performances like OBMs. We shall now look at the advantages and disadvantages of both OBMs and WBMs Advantages of WBM: WBMs pose a comparably minimal risk to the environment, there’s a lower logistical challenge as compared to OBMs in terms of transporting of the liquid phase, For WBMs disposal doesn’t require high transportation cost like OBMs especially for off shore operations that might require shipment to shore for treatment and disposal, Viscosity and Density are easily controlled, for low pressure formations, WBMs are a good choice, easier removal of drill cuttings at shakers and Less of a need for cuttings washing and drying. Disadvantages of WBM: it is inferior in lubricatingShow MoreRelatedSupply Of Resource Oil Market, Aidan Harvey, The Founder And Current Executive Director Of Tullow Oil829 Words   |  4 PagesBACKGROUND INFORMATION Due to the availability of resource oil market, Aidan Harvey, who is the founder and current executive director of Tullow oil plc established and incorporated the company in 1985. The company has been in operation for a period of 30 years in the oil industry. It is the leading independent company in oil and gas exploration mostly operating in Africa and Atlantic Margins. The main activity has been exploring and producing light oil and it has 148 licenses in about 24 countries approximatedRead MoreThe Giant Bomu Oil Field Essay1531 Words   |  7 PagesThe giant Bomu oil field in Ogoni located in Gokana Local Government Area, which has estimated ultimate recovery of 0.311 billion of barrels of oil and a total of 0.608 billion of barrels of oil equivalent including gas, was discovered in 1958 (Aniefiok et al 2013, Amanyie 2006, and Vassilion 2009). According to Amanyie (2005; 2006), in the late 1950s oil was struck in commercial quantity at Lekuma Khana in Ogoni soil, and in Bomu oil field in 1958. In 1962 and 1963, the Korokoro and Ebubu fieldsRead MoreThe Oil And Gas Industry1293 Words   |  6 PagesThe oil and gas industry is characterized by many processes, including exploration, resource extraction, refining, transport, and the trade of products. These resources are important to a number of other industries, and have become vital to the maintenance of industrial civilization. Not only does energy affect the big businesses on the coasts and across the oceans; but it also affects everyday people in rural America, from pump jacks to coal mines. It’s easy to see that technology affects retailRead MoreFuture Trends of the Venezuelan Oil and Gas Industry1357 Words   |  6 PagesVENEZUELA OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY (PDVSA) NAME: INSTITUTION: Venezuela is among world’s leading oil and gas industry holders. It is ranked 13th among the world’s largest oil producers and 10th among the exporters. Notably, it has historically been one of the United States largest sources of oil imports. These key contributions in the world attract experts’ opinions about Venezuela’s future trends in the industry. It is majorly dependent on key factors such as the customer needs, state of economiesRead MoreGranite Oil Corporation Case Study1336 Words   |  6 PagesThis report outlines Granite Oil Corporation’s key strategic objectives and mission for value creation, external environment, organizational design, its competitive advantages, applications to course material and comparisons to other similar companies it is in competition with. Table of Contents Introduction Granite Oil Corporation is a relatively small public corporation dealing in exploration for and exploitation, developmentRead MoreSwot Analysis : Oil And Gas Industry1213 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction The Oil and Gas Industry is one of the oldest industries in the world. This industry plays a crucial role for the survival of mankind on this earth. It is tough to imagine life without the products of oil and gas companies. The ExxonMobil is one of the largest companies in the oil and gas industry. This company had experienced ups and own in its journey from beginning till now. In this regard this paper discusses about the Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysisRead MoreCompany Background Of Exxonmobil ( Xom ) Is An Oil And Gas Company Based Out Of Texas, Usa1599 Words   |  7 PagesBACKGROUND ExxonMobil (XOM) is an oil and gas company based out of Texas, USA. ExxonMobil is considered to be among the top companies in the Major Integrated Oil and Gas industry. Their standing among competitors is based off of several major indicators such as revenues, production, oil and gas reserves and profits. ExxonMobil was formed in 1999 from a merger of Exxon and Mobil oil and gas companies. ExxonMobil has encompasses the resources and structures of Standard Oil. They are also world’s largestRead MoreCurrent Sources Of The State Of Indonesia1721 Words   |  7 Pagesof the state revenues. It is also a very important strategic commodity and often as political issue. The revenues from oil and gas have driven the economic growth and contributed significantly for the development of Indonesia. In the world, legislations which regulate oil and gas are varies from country to country. In spite of many variations, in general, the upstream oil and gas activities, based on two systems, t he production-sharing contracts and the licensing systems. Indonesia was the countryRead MoreOil And Gas Industry : The North Sea And New Zealand Essay1417 Words   |  6 Pagesof Oil and Gas Sector in the North Sea and New Zealand The North Sea is one of the major oil and gas producing region, which of oil and gas production is mainly dominated by Norway and UK accounted for almost 9 percent of world oil and gas production by late 1990. The North Sea has become as one of important oil and gas region in the 1980s and 1990s as an alternative to OPEC supply (Nakhle, 21 April 2016). Figure 5 shows the location of North Sea Oil and Gas Fields. Figure 5. North Sea Oil andRead MoreEssay about Oil Production in Indonesia1038 Words   |  5 PagesThe Indonesian Petroleum Association asserts that, â€Å"Exploration for oil in Indonesia dates back to 1871, with the first commercial production beginning in 1885.† The success of one of the very first wells, drilled at Telaga Tunggal in 1885, triggered the explosion in the Indonesian oil industry. At a depth of only 121 meters, this well was producing commercial quantities of oil. This immediately led to further exploration and drilling of new oil fields throughout the region. The Royal Dutch Company

Appeals Process - 1313 Words

APPEALS PROCESS KENNETH SPAULDING CJS/220 UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX MAY 7 2015 APPEALS PROCESS An appeal is a right you usually have after a final decision of a court or government agency. If you don’t agree with the decision of the court or agency, you can have the decision reviewed by a higher court or agency, and sometimes a court can review an agency’s decision. Almost all appeals have to be filed in writing. All appeals have to be filed within a certain time, called the appeal period. Sometimes you have to post an appeal bond, of cash or property, within a certain time, to appeal from a lower court to a higher court. A typical appeal in a criminal case is from a conviction following a trial. The defendant will allege to the†¦show more content†¦That is a powerful advantage. Whoever is expected to testify in the case should review the initial appeal letter. Use the same physician for most appeals. This allows you to train the physician on both the regulatory framework and the art of testimony. Using a â€Å"designated† physician allows you to build a small team of individuals who can learn and work together. Each appeal can build on lessons from past successes and failures. Having a consistent team is probably the best tip for improving your appeals. EXAMPLE OF REAL-WORLD CASE (CBS/AP) SAN FRANCISCO - Convicted murderer Scott Peterson filed an automatic appeal to the California Supreme Court on Thursday, eight years after he was sentenced to death for the murders of his wife and unborn son. In the appeal, his lawyer argued that the overwhelming publicity the trial received, incorrect evidentiary rulings, juror misconduct and other errors deprived Peterson of a fair trial. A San Mateo County jury found the former fertilizer salesman guilty of suffocating Laci Peterson and dumping her in the San Francisco Bay on Christmas Eve 2002. Peterson was convicted in 2004, although he maintained his innocence throughout the trial. He claimed that Laci was killed sometime in the morning of Dec. 24, 2002 after he left their Modesto home to go fishing in the San Francisco Bay. Death penalty lawyer Cliff Gardner noted that Peterson was convicted and sentenced to deathShow MoreRelatedAppeals Process934 Words   |  4 PagesAppeals When an offender and it’s representing counsel feels that the judge made a substantial mistake in their case then the defendant through his representing counsel has the option to appeal the decision. Both sides of the case has the opportunity to appeal (in a civil case) if both feel that the decision made by the judge was a mistake or in most cases the loosing side and in criminal cases only the defendant may appeal the verdict (The Appeals Process, 2012). An appeal is a formal requestRead MoreCriminal Appeal Process1193 Words   |  5 PagesFederal Criminal Appeal Process as a Social Policy The losing party in a judgment by a federal district court, in general has a right to appeal the judgment to the next highest court, which is usually the United States Circuit Court of Appeals. In a federal criminal case, the government may not appeal a not guilty verdict, though they may appeal the sentence imposed on a criminal convict. In a federal criminal case, the defendant may appeal their conviction and the sentence. The party who filesRead MoreThe Criminal Appeal Process And The Adequateness1748 Words   |  7 PagesCriminal Appeal Process and the Adequateness Introduction It is of great importance to discuss the challenges faced by indeterminate sentence prisoners maintaining factual innocence as it forms many questions revolving around the criminal appeals process and the adequacy of procedures as it pertains to the prison system, the Parole Board and the Criminal Case Review Commission (CCRC). I will discuss these issues in light of Stefan Kiszko and a comparison of both Canada s and Australia s appeal systemRead MoreCriminal Process From Arrest Through Sentencing And Appeal1926 Words   |  8 Pages The Criminal Process from Arrest through Sentencing and Appeal Rigoberto Felix Brandman University The Criminal Process from Arrest through Sentencing and Appeal Our society for the most part has a set of written laws by which it operates under. Laws govern our behavior in society and list punishments by which individuals that break them will be prosecuted and sentenced. Our criminal justice system is essential made up of three major intuitions which see a case from the beginning andRead MoreAppeals Process1831 Words   |  8 Pages| APPEALS PROCESS | Describing the appeals process | | | 2/12/2012 | Abstract An appeal in the criminal law system is a defendant’s way of challenging the court’s decision. In this paper I will discuss what an appeal is, how it factors into the overall procedures and process of the criminal system. How the appeals process may be improved. Steps in the appeals process and an example case of an appeal. And why the example case appeal did or did not succeed. Introduction A defendantRead MoreHealth Benefits Appeal Process759 Words   |  3 PagesHealth Benefits Appeal Process Health Benefits Appeal Process Introduction An estimated 249 million private sector insurance claims will have been filed in 2011 (U.S. Department of Treasury, 2010, p. 43343). If the government sector and the market for individual coverage are included, an additional 70 and 62 million claims, respectively, were expected to be filed. Of these, 48.1 million or 12.6% will be denied. Only a small percentage of denied claims are expected to be appealed, approximatelyRead MorePossible Improvements to the Appeals Process882 Words   |  4 PagesAppeals Process Paper The United States system of criminal justice actually goes far beyond the beginnings of American government. The system is based on the English system, and the same is followed by governments around the world. This paper deals with the appeals process, how it fits into the criminal justice system, what can be done to improve the system, and follows an actual case through the US system. What is an Appeal? Basically an appeal is designed to give a litigant a second chanceRead MoreThe Death Penalty Needs a Better Appeals Process1414 Words   |  6 PagesThe Death Penalty Needs a Better Appeals Process Most often the death penalty is used in the United States to punish people that kill children, women or the elderly. The system has been in place for many years, and has evolved from the use of the electric chair and firing squads to the current method, the use of lethal injection. The most common reason innocent people are put to death is because of poor representation; in many cases, inmates get a court appointed lawyer and receive the ultimateRead MoreCjs/220 Week 9 Final Essay818 Words   |  4 PagesCJS/220 An appeal is a process that assists someone who is being charged with a crime, also known as a defendant. An appeal gives the defendant the opportunity to use a higher court to over-turn a lower court’s decision. †The appeals process is part of the system of â€Å"checks and balances† designed to ensure that defendants have received due process at ear- lier stages of the criminal justice process.† (The Courts in Our Criminal Justice System, Meyer amp; Grant, Pg. 465) An appeal is also a defendant’sRead MoreRecovery Audit Contractor Program Essay examples1194 Words   |  5 Pageshappen if it is discovered by RAC that health care organization may be committing fraud? Is there an appeal process?...........................................................................................................................................................4 What could happen if it is discovered by RAC that health care organization may be committing fraud? Is there an appeal process?....................................................................................................

Conditioning Approach to Promote Positive Classroom Behaviour

Question: Discuss about the Use of Operant Conditioning Approach to Promote Positive Classroom Behaviour. Answer: Operant Conditioning is a learning approach coined by B.F. Skinner, a behaviourist, which recommends change of the behaviour of an individual through the use of rewards as well as punishment. The term operant as used by Skinner implies an active behaviour portrayed by an individual which operates with the given environment to generate consequences. This approach associates the behaviour of the individual and the consequences that come along as a result of that behaviour (Ajzen, 2011). Skinner maintained that it is not possible to examine the internal thoughts of an individual and motivations to enable us explain why the individual is behaving in a certain manner. He recommends through this theory of Operand Conditioning that in order to understand the behaviour of an individual, we should focus our attention on the external causes of human behaviour that is observable. The focal point of this theory is on how the consequences of the actions portrayed by individuals influenced their behaviour. This theory offers an explanation on the range of learned that are learned that we exhibit in our day-to-day lives (Kazdin, 2012). It is premised on the believe that actions that are accompanied by reinforcements such as rewards will be strengthened and encouraged to keep happening whereas those actions that are strengthened by negative reinforcements such as punishments are less likely to reoccur. This theory is suitable and can be used by Jane, a teacher who teaches Primary 5 students. The students display operant behaviour by engaging in activities that are under their conscious control. The behaviour of the students characterised by lack of participation in the classroom discussions and failure of the students to complete assignments and homework makes Jane to find it hard managing these group of students (Heimlich Ardoin, 2008). Moreover, the students are inactive and just stare at the teacher whenever asked questions making it difficult for Jane in handling them. To change the consequences brought about by the unpleasant behaviour of the students, Jane will find the Operant Conditioning theory very relevant and suitable. The logic behind this theory that makes it suitable for the teacher is changing the behaviour of the students by use of rewards as well as punishments. To change the behaviour of her students, it is of essence that teacher Jane understands the existing difference between positive reinforcement and punishment. The purpose of using positive reinforcement is to increase the chances of a desired behaviour and encourage the students to indulge in positive behaviour such as answering questions in the classroom as well as doing home works and class assignments (Gneezy, et al. 2011). Some of the most common rewards teacher Jane can use to promote classroom participation and doing of assignments is to give rewards such as prizes, praises or treats. Teacher Jane should also use punishment as a reinforcement mechanism to reduce the chances of the students indulging in undesirable behaviour such as failure to do assignments and participate in the classroom (Weiten, 2007). To promote a suitable classroom environment and manage the behaviour of the students more effectively, Jane should focus more on using positive reinforcement as opposed to punishments and consequences. Nonetheless it is advisable that Jane makes the punishments and consequences known to the students as a way of deterring them from engaging in negative behaviour (Johnston, et al. 2010). For instance, students should be made aware of the consequences and punishments that will come along as a result of failure to do homework, class assignments as well as failure to participate in the classroom during lessons. In ensuring positive behaviour among her students, Jane ought to be cautious to ensure that the methods she employs are delivered in the right way and are geared towards ensuring that it is only the behaviour of the student being dealt with and not the student who exhibits the behaviour. In coming up with the behaviour management strategies, it is essential for Jane to ensure that the strategies used are able to address specific needs of the specific individuals. This is because the behaviour of students are based on specific individual circumstances that may not be common to all hence the teacher should ensure that the behaviour management strategies used are respectful as well as specific to each student (Stone, et al. 2009). The punishment adopted by the teacher should be directly linked to the behaviour exhibited by the student. For instance, students who do not answer questions in the classroom should be asked questions and made to answer. The punishment will serve no purpose if the student who fails to answer questions in the classroom is made to pick rubbish after the lesson (Olson, 2015). Similarly, the consequences to be paid by the students of teacher Jane whether negative or positive should be consistently and immediately applied once the behaviour is exhi bited. According to Operant Conditioning theory, Jane should not use the consequence to obtain control and power over the student but rather, the consequence should be used to guide the student and enable them understand the reason as to why their behaviour is deemed inappropriate, how to deviate from the negative behaviour and behave correctly as well as the importance of behaving in a correct manner (Pritchard, 2013). Components of Operant Conditioning approaches that Jane should use Reinforcement These are the events that encourage the behaviour engaged in by the students. There are two types of reinforcement that Jane can use to change the behaviour of the students in her classroom. They include Use of positive reinforcement To promote good behaviour among her students, Jane should adopt the use of positive reinforcement. These entail using favourable events and outcomes as a reward for good behaviour. This encourages the students who do well to continue doing even better while at the same time, encourages those who engage in unpleasant behaviour to envy and copy from those who behave well (Ivey, et al. 2011). For instance, Jane can promote and encourage participation among her students by praising those who answer questions in her classroom using sweet words such as well done, excellent as well as acknowledging good behaviour such as class participation by asking other members of the classroom to clap for those who answer the questions. Similarly, she can administer gifts such as sweets and candies to those who do their homework and class assignments as well as to those who actively participate in the classroom. Positive reinforcement can also entail application of good teaching methods. The reason behind lack of participation among the students of Jane could be due to the lack of understanding of the concepts being taught as well as dislike for the manner in which Jane presents herself in the classroom. Therefore, change of teaching tactics could act as a positive reinforcement that will boost class participation and make it easier for Jane to manage her students (Mazur, 2015). For instance, Jane should alter the pace she uses in her teaching to cater for the interests of the slow learners. Similarly, use of teaching techniques such as grouping the students placing slow learners in groups with fast learners will boost the confidence among the students and encourage their participation in the classroom. Negative reinforcement To encourage change of behaviour among her students, Jane can also use negative reinforcement. This entails the withdrawal of an unfavourable event or outcome immediately it is noticed that the students are engaged in unpleasant behaviour. For instance, one of the reasons as to why Janes students fail to do their homework is watching movies. Jane can talk to the parents of her students to draw a timetable whereby time for watching movies is reduced and introduce study time among the students while at home (Mitchell, et al. 2009). Nonetheless, it is essence that in such withdrawal, the students are made to understand the reason why such a measure is taken and not make it appear as if it is a way of parents exercising control over the children. Punishment Punishment is also a good mechanism which Jane can use to promote change of behaviour among her students. This entails presenting an adverse event or outcome to the students that will reduce the negative behaviour. There are types of punishment that Jane can use to improve the level of class participation among her students and ensure that the students do their assignments and home works (Richey, et al. 2010). These punishments include; Positive punishment Through the use of positive punishment, Jane will be able to reduce the response that comes as a result of introduction of an unfavourable event or outcome. For instance, to ensure that no student fails to do assignments and homework, Jane should embrace the use of punishment by application such as giving more assignments to those who fail to do the assignment given to them. This will make them desist from the behaviour of not doing the tasks assignment due to the fear of being given more tasks to accomplish. Negative punishment To ensure responsible class participation and doing of tasks assigned, Jane can withdraw a favourable event or outcome from the students. For instance, the students can be barred from going out for break until they answer questions. Weaknesses and Strengths of Operant Conditioning in classroom management The use of both negative and positive reinforcement leads to a change of behaviour among learners in a classroom. However, the reinforcement works effectively when accompanied by verbal validation which enables the student know why they are being rewarded or punished. Through verbal validation, the student is able to receive further instructions that help them perform better in the classroom. Albert Bandura in his theory of Social Learning maintains that children behave in a certain manner as a result of how they see others behave within the society. If those around them portray pleasant behaviour, then the child is likely to imitate and behave in similar pleasant behaviour (Horowitz, 2014). On the other hand, if the adult engages in unpleasant behaviour, the child will most likely engage in a similar manner since they imitate the adults and from those around them. Operant Conditional theory by Skinner is more suitable to a learning environment than this theory by Bandura. This is because, in his theory, Skinner acknowledges that children are likely to engage in unpleasant behaviour due to varied factors. However, Skinner unlike Bandura offers a solution that if applied will see the children who have adapted unpleasant behaviour due to several factors such as social learning change to pleasant behaviour through reinforcement. Nonetheless, this theory could make children to be materialistic and irresponsible at the same time. The child only works heard or engages in good behaviour due to the prospect for a reward or fear of punishment but not out of their own drive and sense of responsibility. Immediately such reinforcement is withdrawn, there are high chances of such a child engaging in worst behaviour. Erikson in his theory of Social and Emotional Development points out the various stages through which an individual passes through as they develop. He also points out the significance of social experiences of the individual in the various stages of development and how the social experience shapes the behaviour of an individual as they develop (Mazur, 2015). His theory contradicts Operant Conditioning theory which maintains that the behaviour of an individual is shaped through reinforcements both negative and positive. However, Opera Conditioning approach criticized from the point of view Eriksons Social and Emotional Development theory, it fails to explain the genesis of the behaviour of an individual. Instead, it only explains how behaviour can be changed from unpleasant to pleasant through reinforcement. Piaget in his researches concentrated on adolescents and observed that the behaviour of children is determined by age where he observed that children in the same age bracket portrayed similar behaviour. Criticizing the theory of Operant Conditioning from Piagets perspective, reinforcement makes the child not to portray their original behaviour. The individual adopts a fake behaviour for the sake of reinforcement. References Ajzen, I. (2011). Theory of planned behavior. Handb Theor Soc Psychol Vol One, 1(2011), 438. Gneezy, U., Meier, S., Rey-Biel, P. (2011). When and why incentives (don't) work to modify behavior. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(4), 191-209. Horowitz, F. D. (2014). Exploring developmental theories: Toward a structural/behavioral model of development. Psychology Press. Heimlich, J. E., Ardoin, N. M. (2008). Understanding behavior to understand behavior change: A literature review. Environmental education research, 14(3), 215-237. Ivey, A. E., D'Andrea, M. J., Ivey, M. B. (2011). Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy: A Multicultural Perspective: A Multicultural Perspective. Sage. Johnston, J. M., Pennypacker, H. S., Green, G. (2010). Strategies and tactics of behavioral research. Routledge. Kazdin, A. E. (2012). Behavior modification in applied settings. Waveland Press. Mazur, J. E. (2015). Learning and behavior. Psychology Press. Mitchell, C. J., De Houwer, J., Lovibond, P. F. (2009). The propositional nature of human associative learning. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32(02), 183-198. Olson, M. H. (2015). An introduction to theories of learning. Psychology Press. Pritchard, A. (2013). Ways of learning: Learning theories and learning styles in the classroom. Routledge. Richey, R. C., Klein, J. D., Tracey, M. W. (2010). The instructional design knowledge base: Theory, research, and practice. Routledge. Stone, D. N., Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M. (2009). Beyond talk: Creating autonomous motivation through self-determination theory. Journal of General Management, 34(3), 75. Weiten, W. (2007). Psychology: Themes and variations: Themes and variations. Cengage Learning.